Italian Art

Notes for my upcoming travels through Italy, following Frederick Hartt's "History of Italian Art".

Milan

Venice

Florence

Vatican City

Rome

Campania

Iconographic Types

Christus triumphans

A cross depicting a living Christ, showing him triumphant over death.

Christus patiens

A cross depicting a dead Christ, emphasizing his suffering and sacrifice.

Tondo

A circular painting or relief sculpture. The term comes from the Italian word "rotondo" (round).

Names

Francesco

方濟各 - Francis (as in St. Francis of Assisi).

Materials

Pietra serena
Wikipedia

Blue-gray sandstone used extensively in Renaissance Florence for architectural elements.

Decorative Techniques

Opus sectile

A Roman and medieval technique of creating decorative surfaces by cutting and fitting together pieces of marble or other colored stones into patterns or figures. Unlike mosaic, which uses small uniform tesserae, opus sectile uses larger, custom-cut pieces. Fragments from the Domus Transitoria on the Palatine Hill in the Palatine Museum demonstrate this decorative technique. The Cosmatesque style is a form of opus sectile, as seen in the pavement of Santa Maria in Cosmedin.

Architectural Terms

Cantoria

A raised platform or gallery for singers, usually in a church. The two famous Cantorie by Luca della Robbia (1431-1438) and Donatello (1433-1439) were created for Florence Cathedral and are now in the Museo dell'Opera del Duomo.

Capomaestro

Italian term meaning "head master" or "chief master," referring to the lead architect or master builder in charge of a major construction project such as a cathedral. Arnolfo di Cambio was documented as capomaestro for Florence Cathedral in 1300.

Opera del Duomo

The institution responsible for the building and maintenance of Florence Cathedral. Founded in 1296, it supervised the construction and continues to maintain the cathedral complex today. The term literally means "Works of the Cathedral."

Baldacchino

An ornamental canopy of stone, wood, or metal permanently placed over an altar or throne in a church. Also called a ciborium when in stone or metal. The Ciborium of Deodatus (1294) at Santa Maria in Cosmedin is a notable example in the Florentine Gothic style with Cosmatesque decoration.

Diaconia

An early Christian institution or building dedicated to charitable work, particularly the distribution of food to the poor. Santa Maria in Cosmedin was originally established as a diaconia in the 6th century, serving the Greek community in Rome.

Thermae

The Latin term for large-scale public bathing establishments in ancient Rome, distinguished from smaller balnea (singular: balneum). Thermae were vast complexes containing not just bathing facilities but also exercise areas (palaestrae), libraries, lecture halls, and gardens. The Baths of Caracalla are a major example.

Frigidarium

The cold room in Roman thermae, featuring a large cold plunge pool. Often the most ornately decorated room in the bath complex. The Farnese Hercules was recovered from the frigidarium of the Baths of Caracalla.

Palaestra

An exercise ground attached to Roman baths where visitors could exercise before bathing. The Farnese Bull was discovered in the palaestra of the Baths of Caracalla.

Doric Order
Wikipedia

The earliest and simplest of the three classical orders of Greek and Roman architecture, recognized by simple circular capitals atop sturdy, fluted columns with no base. Used on the ground floor of the Colosseum for its strength and simplicity.

Ionic Order
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One of the three canonic orders of classical architecture, characterized by scroll-shaped volutes on the capitals and more slender proportions than Doric. Used on the second tier of the Colosseum.

Corinthian Order
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The most ornate of the three principal classical orders, featuring elaborate capitals decorated with acanthus leaves. Used on the third tier of the Colosseum, supporting the least weight with the most decorative appearance.

Roman Amphitheatre
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A large, elliptical open-air venue with tiered seating built by ancient Romans for events such as gladiatorial combats, animal hunts (venationes), and public executions. About 230 Roman amphitheatres have been found across the Roman Empire. The Colosseum is the largest example.

Hypogeum

An underground structure or chamber, from the Greek for "under the earth." Used to describe subterranean temples, tombs, and burial places. The Colosseum's hypogeum refers specifically to the underground network of tunnels beneath the arena floor, used to house gladiators, animals, and stage machinery; trapdoors enabled sudden appearances of performers and scenery. The Tomb of the Scipios on the Via Appia Antica is another example of a hypogeum.

Spolia
Wikipedia

Architectural and sculptural elements taken from earlier structures and reused in new construction. The Arch of Constantine is the most famous example of spolia in Roman architecture, incorporating reliefs, statues, and columns from monuments of Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius. The practice served both practical and ideological purposes — linking Constantine to the "good emperors" of Rome's golden age while demonstrating continuity of imperial power.

Roman Military and Ritual

Adlocutio

A formal address by a Roman emperor or general to his assembled troops, frequently depicted in Roman imperial relief sculpture. On the Arch of Constantine, adlocutio scenes appear in both the Marcus Aurelius panels and the Constantinian frieze, showing the emperor on a raised platform addressing soldiers arranged in rows below.

Suovetaurilia

An ancient Roman sacrificial rite in which a pig (sus), sheep (ovis), and bull (taurus) were sacrificed to Mars. Depicted on the south side Marcus Aurelius panels of the Arch of Constantine, the ritual was performed for purification of the army or consecration of land.

Painting Styles

Pompeian Styles

Four periods distinguished in ancient Roman mural painting, originally delineated by German archaeologist August Mau from excavations at Pompeii:

  • First Style (Incrustation, c. 200-80 BC): Imitation of marble veneer
  • Second Style (Architectural, c. 80-20 BC): Illusionistic architecture and depth
  • Third Style (Ornamental, c. 20 BC-50 AD): Delicate, decorative motifs
  • Fourth Style (Intricate, c. 50-79 AD): Combines elements of previous styles
Second Style (Roman wall painting)
Wikipedia

Also called the "Architectural Style," the second of four Pompeian Styles of Roman mural painting (c. 80 BC – 20 BC). Characterized by illusionistic architectural elements that appear to open up the wall, creating the effect of looking through a window or into another room. The Room of the Masks Frescoes in the House of Augustus on the Palatine Hill is a prime example.

Mythology

Ariadne
Wikipedia

Cretan princess, daughter of King Minos. She helped Theseus escape from the Minotaur's labyrinth but was abandoned by him on the island of Naxos. There, the god Dionysus (Bacchus) found her sleeping, fell in love with her, and made her his wife, throwing her jeweled crown into the sky to create the constellation Corona Borealis.

Europa
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Phoenician princess from Tyre and mother of King Minos of Crete. Zeus, disguised as a beautiful white bull, approached Europa while she gathered flowers by the sea. When she climbed onto his back, he swam to Crete. The continent of Europe is named after her.

Three Graces
Wikipedia

In Greek mythology, the Charites (or Graces in Roman mythology) were three goddesses of charm, beauty, nature, human creativity, goodwill, and fertility. Traditionally named Aglaea (Splendor), Euphrosyne (Mirth), and Thalia (Good Cheer), they were attendants of Aphrodite/Venus.

Religious and Ritual

Priapus
Wikipedia

A minor rustic fertility god in Greek and Roman mythology, protector of livestock, fruit plants, gardens, and male genitalia. Marked by his oversized, permanent erection (giving rise to the medical term priapism). He became a popular figure in Roman erotic art and Latin literature, and was often depicted at house entrances as a protective talisman.

Dionysian Mysteries

A ritual of ancient Greece and Rome, sometimes using trance-inducing techniques. The cult of Dionysus (Bacchus) provided liberation for marginalized groups. The mysteries are depicted in the famous frescoes of the Villa of the Mysteries.

Latin Phrases

Cave Canem

Latin for "Beware of the Dog," a warning phrase found on mosaic floors in Roman houses, most famously at the House of the Tragic Poet in Pompeii.

Archaeological Terms

Catacomb

Underground cemeteries used primarily in ancient Rome and the surrounding regions. Christians and Jews dug these extensive tunnel networks in the soft tufa rock to bury their dead, as Roman law prohibited burial within the city walls. The term may derive from the Greek "kata kumbas" (near the hollow). Notable examples along the Via Appia Antica include the Catacomb of Callixtus, Catacombs of San Sebastiano, and Catacombs of Domitilla.

Apodyterium

The dressing room of a Roman bath house where bathers would undress and store their clothes in numbered cubby holes or boxes. The apodyterium of the Suburban Baths at Pompeii is famous for its erotic frescoes.

Graffito

In an archaeological context, a deliberate mark made by scratching or engraving on a large surface such as a wall. The marks may form an image or writing. Distinguished from painted inscriptions (dipinti), which were typically used for public notices.

Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL)
Wikipedia

A comprehensive collection of ancient Latin inscriptions forming the authoritative source for documenting Roman epigraphy. Volume 4 of the CIL is dedicated to Pompeii and Herculaneum inscriptions, with graffiti numbered sequentially (e.g., CIL 4.5296).

Spintria
Wikipedia

Small bronze or brass Roman tokens (about 24mm diameter) with erotic imagery on one side and Roman numerals I-XVI on the other. One theory suggests they were used as locker tokens in bath houses like the Suburban Baths, where the sexual scenes matched wall paintings above numbered storage boxes.

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Museums

Secret Museum, Naples
Wikipedia

Also called the Secret Cabinet (Gabinetto Segreto), this collection at the National Archaeological Museum of Naples houses 1st-century Roman erotic art found at Pompeii and Herculaneum. The collection was repeatedly opened and closed to the public between 1819 and 2000 due to changing attitudes toward sexuality. Since 2005, visitors must be at least 14 years old to enter.

Linguistics

Vulgar Latin
Wikipedia

The non-formal registers of Latin spoken from the Late Roman Republic onward, as opposed to Classical Latin used in formal writing. The graffiti of Pompeii provides invaluable evidence of how ordinary Romans actually spoke, preserving colloquialisms, slang, and regional variations lost from literary sources.

Historical Events

Battle of Issus
Wikipedia

A battle in southern Anatolia on 5 November 333 BC between the Hellenic League led by Alexander the Great and the Achaemenid Empire led by Darius III. Alexander's victory forced Darius to flee, leaving behind his family and treasury. This battle is the subject of the famous Alexander Mosaic found in the House of the Faun.

Fourth Crusade
Wikipedia

A Latin Christian armed expedition (1202-1204) that culminated in the 1204 sack of Constantinople rather than the intended conquest of Egypt. The Venetians, who provided the fleet, gained enormous amounts of treasure including the Horses of Saint Mark, the Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs, the Madonna Nicopeia icon, and countless items now in the Treasury of Saint Mark's Basilica.

Byzantine and Venetian Terms

Nicopeia

From Greek meaning "bringer of victory." A title of the Virgin Mary and a type of Byzantine icon showing Mary frontally holding the Christ Child. The Madonna Nicopeia in St Mark's was believed to bring victory to Byzantine emperors who carried it into battle.

Tetrarchy
Wikipedia

The system instituted by Roman emperor Diocletian (AD 293-324) to govern the Roman Empire by dividing it between two senior emperors (augusti) and two junior colleagues (caesares). The Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs on Saint Mark's Basilica depicts this system.

Translatio

The term for the ceremonial transfer of relics from one location to another. The translatio of Saint Mark's relics from Alexandria to Venice in 828 is depicted in mosaics on the basilica's facade.

Quadriga

A chariot drawn by four horses, often depicted in ancient Roman triumphal art. The Horses of Saint Mark originally formed part of a quadriga monument, possibly from a Roman triumphal arch or hippodrome.

Iconostasis
Wikipedia

In Eastern Christianity, a wall of icons and religious paintings separating the nave from the sanctuary. In Western churches influenced by Byzantine tradition, such as St Mark's, it takes the form of a rood screen. The Iconostasis at St Mark's by the Dalle Masegne brothers (1394) combines this Byzantine liturgical element with Gothic sculptural style.

Ciborium
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In ecclesiastical architecture, a canopy or covering supported by columns that stands over and covers the altar. Also known as a baldachin. The Ciborium Columns at St Mark's rest on four carved alabaster columns containing 108 relief scenes.

Manuscripts

Cotton Genesis
Wikipedia

A Greek illuminated manuscript of the Book of Genesis, one of the oldest illustrated biblical codices to survive to the modern period. Brought from Constantinople, it heavily influenced the design of the Genesis Cupola Mosaics in the narthex of Saint Mark's Basilica.

Roman Law and Practice

Damnatio Memoriae
Wikipedia

A Roman practice of erasing a person from official history, including removing their name from inscriptions and destroying their images. Applied to Geta after his murder by Caracalla, visible on the Arch of Septimius Severus where Geta's name was chiseled away. Also visible on the Arch of Constantine, where the figure of Commodus was erased from the Marcus Aurelius relief panels.

Vestal Virgin
Wikipedia

Priestesses of Vesta, goddess of the hearth, who tended the sacred fire in the Temple of Vesta. They served for 30 years and took a vow of chastity. Breaking this vow was punishable by being buried alive. Vestals enjoyed privileges unusual for Roman women, including the right to own property and freedom from their father's control.

Aerarium
Wikipedia

The public treasury of ancient Rome, located in the Temple of Saturn. It held the state's reserves of gold and silver, as well as important documents including laws engraved on bronze tablets.

Curia
Wikipedia

The meeting house of the Roman Senate. The Curia Julia, built by Julius Caesar and Augustus, is the third and best-preserved of Rome's senate houses.

Basilica
Wikipedia

In Roman architecture, a large public building used for legal and commercial business. The form, with a central nave flanked by aisles, was later adopted for Christian churches. Examples in the Roman Forum include the Basilica Julia and Basilica Aemilia.

Triumphal Arch
Wikipedia

A monumental structure in the shape of an archway, typically celebrating a military victory. The Roman Forum contains some of the earliest and most influential examples, including the Arch of Titus and Arch of Septimius Severus. The Arch of Constantine, the largest Roman triumphal arch, stands between the Colosseum and the Palatine Hill.

Saturnalia
Wikipedia

An ancient Roman festival in honor of Saturn, held in December. A time of feasting, gift-giving, and temporary social role reversal. The Temple of Saturn in the Forum was the center of this celebration.

Historical Events (Roman)

Sack of Rome (410)
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The Visigoths under King Alaric I sacked Rome for three days on August 24, 410 AD. This was the first time in almost 800 years that Rome had been taken by a foreign enemy. Evidence of the destruction is visible in the Basilica Aemilia, where coins melted into the floor during fires.

Siege of Jerusalem (70 AD)
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The siege and conquest of Jerusalem by Roman forces led by the future Emperor Titus in 70 AD. The city and the Second Temple were destroyed. The famous reliefs inside the Arch of Titus depict the triumphal procession displaying spoils from the Temple, including the Menorah.

Roman Roads

Via Appia (Appian Way)
Wikipedia

Latin name for the Appian Way, one of the earliest and strategically most important Roman roads of the ancient republic. Roman roads were named after the magistrates who commissioned them—in this case, Appius Claudius Caecus, censor in 312 BC who initiated the road's construction. Called the "Queen of Roads" (Regina Viarum), it connected Rome to Brindisi in southeast Italy. The preserved section near Rome, the Via Appia Antica, is now a regional park containing catacombs, tombs, monuments, and early Christian churches.